Fungi, of which there are over 100,000 species, including yeasts and other single-celled organisms as well as the common molds and mushrooms, were formerly classified as members of the plant kingdom. However, in reality they are very different from plants and today they are placed in a separate group altogether. The principal reason for this is that none of them possesses chlorophyll, and since they cannot synthesize their own carbohydrates, they obtain their supplies either from the breakdown of dead organic matter or from other living organisms.

Furthermore the walls bf fungal cells are not made of cellulose, as those of plants are, but of another complex sugar-like polymer called chitin, the material from which the hard outer skeletons of shrimps, spiders, and insects are made. The difference between the chemical composition of the cell walls of fungi and those of plants is of enormous importance because it enables the tips of the growing hyphae, the threadlike cells of the fungus, to secrete enzymes that break down the walls of plant cells without having any effect on those of the fungus itself. It is these cellulose destroying enzymes that enable fungi to attack anything made from wood, wood pulp, cotton, flax, or other plant material.

The destructive power of fungi is impressive. They are a major cause of structural damage to building timbers, a cause of disease in animals and humans, and one of the greatest causes of agricultural losses. Entire crops can be wiped-out by fungal attacks both before and after harvesting. Some fungi can grow at +50°C, while others can grow at -5°C, so even food in cold storage may not be completely safe from them. On the other hand, fungi bring about the decomposition of dead organic matter, thus enriching the soil and returning carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. They also enter into a number of mutually beneficial relationships with plants and other organisms. In addition, fungi are the source of many of the most potent antibiotics used in clinical medicine, including penicillin.

What does Paragraph 1 mainly discuss?

Pembahasan:

5.0

Jawaban terverifikasi

Questions 57-60 are based on the following passage.

When another old cave is discovered in the south of France, it is not usually news. Rather, it is an ordinary event. Such discoveries are so frequent these days that hardly anybody pays heed to them. However, when the Lascaux cave complex was discovered in 1940, the world was amazed. Painted directly on its walls were hundreds of scenes showing how people lived thousands of years ago. The scenes show people hunting animals, such as bison or wild cats. Other images depict birds and, most noticeably, horses, which appear in more than 300 wall images, by far outnumbering all other animals.

Early artists drawing these animals accomplished a monumental and difficult task. They did not limit themselves to the easily accessible walls but carried their painting materials to spaces that required climbing steep walls or crawling into narrow passages in the Lascaux complex. Unfortunately, the paintings have been exposed to the destructive action of water and temperature changes, which easily wear the images away. Because the Lascaux caves have many entrances, air movement has also damaged the images inside. Although they are not out in the open air, where natural light would have destroyed them long ago, many of the images have deteriorated and are barely recognizable. To prevent further damage, the site was closed to tourists in 1963, 23 years after it was discovered.

Source:https://www.ets.org/toefl_junior/prepare/stondard_sample_questions/reading_comprehension

What is the main topic of the passage?

Pembahasan:

5.0

Jawaban terverifikasi

The old myths about clever animals may have been closer to the truth than science has been for much of its history. Until fairly recently, animals were considered to be unthinking machines and humans the only truly intelligent species. However, aided by new cognition tests that allow elephants to show their intelligence, scientist have discovered human and elephant's intelligence have much in common.

Most contemporary ethnologists view the elephant as one of the world's most intelligent animals. With a mass of just over 5 kg, an elephant's brain has more mass than that of any other land animal. In addition, elephants have a total of 300 billion neurons. Elephant brains are similar to humans' in terms of general connectivity and areas. The elephants' cortex has as many neurons as human brain.

Moreover, elephants manifest a wide variety of behaviors, including those associated with self-awareness, altruism, memory and communication. It has been proven scientifically that elephants' are self-aware. In one study an elephant called Happy would touch a white cross painted on her forehead, a test used to test self-awareness in children. She could only see it in a mirror and understood that she was looking at a reflection on herself.

Elephants also practice altruism. There is a famous story of an Indian elephant called Chandrasekharan, who was working lifting poles off a truck as it moved along, and placing them in holes dug in the ground. When Chandrasekharan came to one holes he refused to put the log in. Eventually the Mahout checked and discovered a dog sleeping in it. Only when the dog was gone would Chandrasekharan put the pole in.

Finally, elephants do have long memories. They eat an incredible variety of foods and need to cover large distances to get it. They need to know where to goat what time of year. They learn this and remember it. Also, they have complex communication and societies, and they need to remember all the different individuals' voices and smells in order to be socially adept.

What can be inferred from the passage?

Pembahasan:

5.0

Jawaban terverifikasi

The author's main purpose in the second paragraph is to ....

Pembahasan:

5.0

Jawaban terverifikasi

This passage would most likely be found in ....

Pembahasan:

3.5

Jawaban terverifikasi

AII of the following statements about elephants intelligence are true EXCEPT:

Pembahasan:

5.0

Jawaban terverifikasi

There appears to be increasing numbers of children who specialize in a single sport an early age. The lure of a college scholarship or a professional career can motivate young athletes to commit to specialized training regimens at an early age. However, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends avoiding specializing in one sport before puberty.

Once puberty begins, both boys and girls go through their adolescent growth spurt (AGS). The change and the age at which they occur can have an impact on a child's sport performance. Going through this can have a significant impact on athletic performance in both positive and negative ways. Increases in body size, hormones, and muscle strength can improve athletics performance. Nevertheless, there may be a temporary decline in balance skills and body control during the AGS. Quick increases in height and weight affect the body's center of gravity. Sometimes, the brain needs to adjust to this higher observation point. As a result, a teen may seem a little clumsy.

This phase is especially noticeable in sports that require good balance and body control (e.g. figure skating, diving, gymnastics, and basketball). In addition, longer arms and legs can affect throwing any type of ball, hitting with a bat, catching with a glove, or swimming and jumping. Coaches that are aware of the AGS can help reduce athletic awkwardness by incorporating specific aspects of training into practice sessions.

The most appropriate title for this passage is ....

Pembahasan:

5.0

Jawaban terverifikasi

Although gluten has gained a bad reputation, the majority of people would struggle to explain what it actually is. The truth is that gluten is just a mixture of proteins found in the seeds of certain cereal plants: wheat, rye and barley. Gluten is stored in a tissue inside the seed called the endosperm, which surrounds the plant embryo and provides a dense source of energy as the plant starts to grow. In wheat, gluten is formed when the proteins glutenin and gliadin cross-link into a net-like structure that provides elasticity (stretchiness) and viscosity (thickness).

Once food reaches the stomach it must be broken down by enzymes in the process of digestion. Large proteins are broken up into chains of amino acids called peptides. Normally these peptides are easily broken down further; however, the gliadin peptides in gluten are difficult to break down as they are part of a group of peptides called prolamins. Prolamins are made up of lots of glutamine and proline amino acids, which digestive enzymes have difficulty breaking up. This means that unlike most proteins gluten digestion can leave strands of amino acids intact in the small intestine. These strands can be up to 10 amino acids long and are known as oligopeptides. For most people gliadin oligopeptides are harmless. However, a small proportion ofthe population will produce an immune response known as coeliac disease, a condition caused by the body'simmune systems mistakenly attacking itself. Coeliac disease is caused by a reputation to gluten.

This passage would probably be assigned reading in which of the following course?